Advertising assessment

David Gauntlett has argued against the idea that masculinity is 'in crisis’. To what extent do you believe masculinity is 'in crisis'?

In your response you should refer to your Advertising and Marketing Close Study Products: the Score hair cream advert (1967) and the Maybelline ‘That Boss Life’ YouTube advert (2017).

[20 marks]

I agree with this statement as Gauntlett argues that masculinity has changed over time to suit the ideas that are normalised in society today. However, we can see a clear difference in the representation of masculinity in the 1960s and 2010s with varying accepted and perhaps constructed representations pushing a particharcal or counter-patriarchal ideal. I feel that the view and meaning of masculinity has changed within the last 50 years. Due to the recent boom in sexual discovery, many have questioned if men and still 'manly' or if we are rewriting what the normalised and acceptable level of masculinity is present in today's society.

The Score Hair Cream advert was made in 1967 during the second wave of feminism where women fought for reproductive rights, abortion rights and equal pay - an issue that is still a pertinent argument today.  1967 was also a pivotal year as homosexuality was decriminalised, something which is very much integrated into the norms of our society today, the equal pay gap was about to be announced and females had more say in what they wanted but that still took time to take its full effect. 

Whereas the Maybelline Boss Life advert was made in 2017 and offers a rather different view of masculinity. In the last 10 years, gender fluidity has become a key social issue and is present in the Maybelline advert. We are met with Manny Mua who is openly gay and Shayla Mitchell, who also takes centre stage with Manny. This is a clear agreement with the statement that masculinity is not in crisis as we are now accepting other views on how masculinity can be perceived. And since Manny is a vlogger, the internet has most likely caused him to see accepting his gender identity is a good thing due to support from fans. 

I can deduce from the imagery of the Maybelline advert such as the idea of a magic wand and the golden box and even the fact that this is a make up advert, shows that the idea of masculinity is very different to that of the 1960s.

In the Score advert, we see that the actors are deliberately positioned like that - the women are below the man and suggesting that he is more valuable and that she should only serve to support him, not the other way round. We don't see any gender fluidity here as there is just a clear side of men and women.Whereas in the Maybelline advert, Manny and Mitchell are both taking the limelight and are in no way reinforcing dominant patriarchal ideologies. I would argue that this shows that masculinity is in crisis however as we can see, due to the rising female power, the man has a gun in his crotch area which could tell us he is overcompensating. This is a clear example of hypermasculinity where he is being overly strong and is using his weapons to make himself seem more assertive and powerful.

The anchorage in the Score advert also shows that this is emphasising that the product is for MEN made by MEN. And reinforces the view that the 1960s was a predominantly patriarchal era. The anchorage text reinforces that manly men made this and therefore are pushing a heteronormative agenda on its customers. This opposed the 1967 decriminalisation of homosexuality as this shows that heterosexuals are a dominant gender here. The brand’s personality and voice is all about masculine supremacy and self-belief which opposes the idea of becoming gender fluid, which is when your gender expression shifts between male and female. 

Also when Gauntlett wrote about the importance of role models in the media, it was in the 1990s. This was during the third-wave of feminism so the fourth wave might have made him realise that masculinity wasn't really much of a talking. Gauntlett disagrees with the fact that "Contemporary masculinity is often said to be 'in crisis" because in 2002 he said that many modern representations of masculinity require "men finding a place for themselves in the modern world". 

This is clear with Manny Mua as he has clearly found his place in the modern world and has embraced his sexuality to carry on with his passion, vlogging. He doesn't get judged for it like he would around the 1960s where homosexuals were seen as lesser men. Furthermore, the bell boy in the Maybelline advert can also be seen as on trend with current and modern gender politics because he represents someone from the outside (not a vlogger) but yet still maintains an interest in the product subverting typical male stereotypes.

However, one can make an oppositional reading or a critical interpretation that the macho-laden ideas presented in this image are damaging to male self-esteem and present women as passive and merely decorative. This links to the overcompensation I was talking about as I personally believe that the way the man in the Score advert is presented is that he is trying 'too hard' to assert his power over the women who are strategically below him.

We learned from Van Zoonen and Butler that gender is a social construct and is reinforced by societal beliefs and micro-rituals, such as putting make up on or dressing up a certain way. He suggests that masculinity is also a socially constructed performance and therefore only then influenced by your surroundings. In the 1960s, the internet didn't exist and they couldn't really have a lot of information on how masculinity is represented apart from the lifestyle magazines and adverts like the Score advert, which reinforce masculine images of being tough and strong and really manly. 

So my view is that in the last 30 years, the idea and meaning of masculinity has been rewritten so that any male can display their preferred idea of masculinity. Masculinity therefore is not in a crisis as we always see that, according to Gauntlett, identity is becoming more fluid, there are generational differences which reveal evolutions in the acceptance of masculinity and things, like the view of gender, change over time.

There is a denotation in the Score advert of a woman reaching for the man which could show how the product makes you desired by women and therefore makes you above women, also shown by the higher position he's in. The scantily dressed women in the ad show that men only 'really want' a sexualised image of a woman - reinforcing Mulvey's male gaze theory. Which is an example of how things change over time as some men might not want to have women all over them. 

Other campaigns like Boys will be boys from Gillette shows that toxic masculinity, otherwise completely normal in the 60s ,is an issue that needs to be resolved. This agrees with the Maybelline advert as this offers a view that opposes the 1960s cliche of a man needs to be strong and all-powerful to be successful. This stemmed as Gillette's slogan was 'the best a man can get' but with constantly changing views on gender identity, that could be seen as offensive to people who don't identify themselves as men. 

In summary, I strongly agree with Gauntlett's view that masculinity isn't in crisis as the society we live in is now normalised to multiple and various meanings and interpretations of masculinity and with the awareness of the increasing number of people who identify as gender fluid, Gauntlett suggests that the meaning of masculinity could change over time and gender will become even more fluid.

Advertising: Maybelline CSP case study

'That Boss Life' close textual analysis

Use your notes from watching the video to write about the connotations and representations created by the following technical and audio codes. Write at least a paragraph on each:

1) Narrative & genre: narrative theory and sub-genre

The narrative could be that they both find an apartment in NYC and then decide to get 'bossed up'. The mascara is essentially the 'hero' of this as it is presented as a 'wand' that'll fix anything. 

2) Cinematography: camera shots and movement

The close up of the tag along with the 'magic wand' effect shows how important this product can be rto enhancing your life. Close ups of the product and the centring of the product highlight its importance. Extreme close up of the eye gives hints of a 'vlogger' like transformation and it also opposes the classic beauty adverts that we normally see.

3) Mise-en-scene: costume & props

The gold suitcase is an intertextual reference to films like Pulp Fiction and Mad Money. The transition from the room being a white to it being gold shows the audience that the product gives you a massive boost and knowing the extent of the change, as shown by the gold, makes the audience want it even more.

4) Mise-en-scene: actors, setting, lighting and colour

New York; setting. NYC is a well known city and it is one that many dream to live in one day which sets up the desire for the audience. The idea of an American city hints at a high-flying lifestyle as well as lots of money. LOTS OF GOLD - connotations of luxury and royalty.

5) Editing: pace, transitions and visual effects

The fake glimmer of the tag shows the 'magical' emphasis. The slo-mo cliche of throwing it in the air references the parts of movies where they throw money or gold in the air, suggesting that the product has the same value and importance as it's in abundance. The idea of the gold case and the product being in gold adds an exaggerated sense of luxury.

6) Graphics: text/graphics on screen

The anchorage at the beginning is an introduction to these 'famous celebs'. There is a hashtag to create public excitement for the product and to make fans engage on social platforms.

7) Sound: dialogue, music and sound effects

The sound effect of the tag at the beginning is that of a wand which sends connotations that this is magic for the audience.

Maybelline 'That Boss Life': wider reading

Read the following articles on this campaign:

Glamour: Manny Gutierrez Is the First Man to Star in a Maybelline Campaign, and It’s a Huge Deal
Your Story: Cosmetics giant breaks gender stereotypes by choosing male model as a face of the brand

Complete the following questions/tasks:

1) Why was this campaign such a landmark for beauty product advertising?

It was the first every Maybelline campaign to feature a male.

2) What do the articles suggest regarding the changing representation of sexuality and masculinity?

usually ads promote the dangerous sentiment that men are supposed to adhere to hypermasculine culture.") As we continue to celebrate beauty as a way for women to express themselves, it's equally important that men have the same right—whether that's getting the peace of mind of being able to dab a zit with concealer or the freedom to wear a full face and falsies.

3) Read this WWD article: Maybelline Taps Digital Makeup Influencers for New Mascara Campaign. Why might 'digital influencers' be so attractive to companies?

The digital influencer phenomenon has already spread to the mass market, and Maybelline is certainly not the first mass brand to add a male makeup enthusiast to its system — last year, Cover Girl announced its appointment of James Charles, an Instagram makeup artist, to its roster of brand ambassadors. The campaign generated buzz because Charles is a teenage boy.

4) Why do you think Maybelline chose to use MannyMUA and MakeUpShayla in particular?

They're both highly influential social media stars who have a huge impact. MannyMua is openly gay and is also Mexican so it provides an alternative view on masculinity and nationality.

5) What does the WWD article suggest is the crucial factor for brands regardless of whether they use influencers or more traditional celebrities?

Some mass-market brands are eschewing the influencer route. Just this week, Revlon announced it was adding Gwen Stefani, a more traditionally established celebrity, to its ambassador lineup.

“It tends to be a younger brand attracting younger consumers for which the power of the influencers is really strong,” noted Liebmann.

In today’s consumer climate, said Liebmann, celebrities aren’t totally out — but it helps if they have a social media following.

Media Magazine: The Changing Face of Masculinity

Now go to our Media Magazine archive and read the feature 'The Changing Face of Masculinity' in MM63 (page 15). This will allow us to compare our two advertising CSPs - the Score hair cream advert and the Maybelline digital campaign. Answer the following questions:

1) What message does the article suggest the Score hair cream advert is trying to communicate to the 1967 audience?

The audience required photography rather than illustration to make the advert look more realistic.

2) How does the article suggest the Score hair cream advert uses narrative to sell the product?

It's 'made by men' which reinforces typical patriarchal ideologies.It is solely for men, it smells manly and using it will not feminise you in any way. The brand’s personality and voice is all about masculine supremacy and self-belief, and is heavily reinforcing stereotypes of a patriarchal society.

3) What 1967 stereotypes does the article suggest the Score hair cream advert reinforces?

Men are dominant and that women are subservient to them as suggested by the positioning and eye contact. As a heterosexual male, one can achieve everything presented before them in the picture: power, control and sex appeal, with better hair.

4) Applying Stuart Hall's reception theory, what does the article suggest the preferred and oppositional readings could be for the Score hair cream advert?

An oppositional reading or a critical interpretation would be that the macho-laden ideas presented in this image are damaging to male self-esteem and present women as passive and merely decorative (although they’re good for carrying your ammo).

5) Moving on to the Maybelline advert, why is the background of Manny Gutierrez and Shayla Mitchell significant?

The video ad touches on issues of gender representation, ethnicity and lifestyle. They are both social media influencers and can have a big impact on how the product sells. Manny is also gay and therefore opposes typical gender expectations. 

6) What is the narrative of the Maybelline advert?

The advertisement tells the story of two YouTubers, Manny Gutierrez and Shayla Mitchell checking into a New York hotel room with stunning views of the city. They open up a gold, glittery suitcase and out tumbles the product that everyone wants, the ‘Big Shot’ mascara.

7) What does the article suggest the Maybelline advert's message is?

That Maybelline 'transforms' you into a magical state. It utilises many sounds as well as a motif of gold and 'magic transformations' to show that this makes you stand out. 

8) The final section of the article focuses on masculinity. What do the Score advert and the Maybelline advert suggest regarding the changes in society and media between 1967 and 2017?

Blogger Matt Walsh openly criticised Gutierrez, saying: ‘Dads, this is why you need to be there to raise your sons’ implying that strong masculine role models, perhaps like the guy in the ‘Score’ commercial, can steer their sons away from a damaging and emasculating interest in beauty and make-up.

This contrast encompasses the different views of masculine acception in the gap of 50 years.

Advertising: Score case study

Media Factsheet - Score hair cream

Go to our Media Factsheet archive on the Media Shared drive and open Factsheet #188: Close Study Product - Advertising - Score. Our Media Factsheet archive is on the Media Shared drive: M:\Resources\A Level\Media Factsheets. If you need to access this from home you can download it here if you use your Greenford login details to access Google Drive.

Read the factsheet and answer the following questions:

1) How did advertising techniques change in the 1960s and how does the Score advert reflect this change?

Advertisers used less market research and instead used their own creativity.  “Eschewing portrayals of elitism, authoritarianism, reverence for institutions and other traditional beliefs, ads attempted to win over consumers with humour, candour and, above all, irony.” They used large visuals and minimal copy for a dazzling, dramatic effect which is evident in the score advert.

2) What representations of women were found in post-war British advertising campaigns?

Women are more prevalent in the workplace and, therefore, have more discretionary income than women in the sixties. The 60s reinforced that the woman's place was at home and in the kitchen, the typical sexist stereotype of women. 

3) Conduct your own semiotic analysis of the Score hair cream advert: What are the connotations of the mise-en-scene in the image?

There is a denotation of a woman reaching for the man which could show how the product makes you desired by women and therefore makes you above women, also shown by the higher position he's in. The scantily dressed women in the ad show that men only 'really want' a sexualised image of a woman - reinforcing Mulvey's male gaze theory.

4) What does the factsheet suggest in terms of a narrative analysis of the Score hair cream advert?

The Score advert identifies the man as Propp’s ‘hero’ in this narrative. The image infers that he is ‘exalted’ as the hunter-protector of his ‘tribe’. The adoration – and availability – of the females are his reward for such masculine endeavours

5) How might an audience have responded to the advert in 1967? What about in 2019?

The 1967 male audience might read the narrative as ironic and humorous (the dominant reading?) but it is unlikely that they would challenge the underlying ideology implicit within the advert. Females, though not the target audience, might read the gender representations in an oppositional way but at the same time accept its representation of a patriarchal society as normal or inevitable. Modern audiences, including students of the media, are likely to respond in a different way, aware that its sexist narrative is outdated and, for some, offensive

6) How does the Score hair cream advert use persuasive techniques (e.g. anchorage text, slogan, product information) to sell the product to an audience?

The anchorage text gives meaning to the product as well as reassuring men about their sexuality through the repeated emphasis that the cream was made by MEN. Bandwagoning is also present as if other men get it, others will feel inclined to follow suit. The slogan 'get what you've always wanted' is an example of a traditional reference of gender and masculinity.

7) How might you apply feminist theory to the Score hair cream advert - such as van Zoonen, bell hooks or Judith Butler?

Van Zoonen agreed with Butler on that she sees gender as negotiated and dependant on social and historical context. Butler's Gender Trouble can be applied here as well as this shows that the meaning and representation of the female sex is completely the work of the social influences undergone by the creators if the advert.

8) How could Stuart Hall's theory of representation and David Gauntlett's theory regarding gender identity be applied to the Score hair cream advert?

Here, according to Hall, Score is actively constructing their representations of both men and women to suit their personal criteria. The sense of individuality provided to men is then completely false as it's all a reflected version of a pre-constructed representation.

9) What representation of sexuality can be found in the advert and why might this link to the 1967 decriminalisation of homosexuality (historical and cultural context)?

The anchorage text reinforces that manly men made this and therefore are pushing a heteronormative agenda on its customers. This opposed the 1967 decriminalisation of homosexuality as this shows that heterosexuals are a dominant gender here.

10) How does the advert reflect Britain's colonial past - another important historical and cultural context?

The jungle-like setting as well as the adventure clothes hint to the colonial era as they are all holding up, or even worshipping, a white man with a gun.


Wider reading

The Drum: This Boy Can article

Read this article from The Drum magazine on gender and the new masculinity. If the Drum website is blocked, you can find the text of the article here. Think about how the issues raised in this article link to our Score hair cream advert CSP and then answer the following questions:

1) Why does the writer suggest that we may face a "growing 'boy crisis'"?

A growing global ‘boy crisis’ suggests that we could be, in fact, empowering the wrong sex. Of course, women are woefully under-represented in boardrooms and certain walks of life, with casual sexism and unconscious bias still endemic, but the difference is that we are all now familiar with the narrative around tackling these issues, thanks in no small part to groundbreaking campaigns such as ‘Like A Girl’ by Always, Sport England’s ‘This Girl Can’ and Dove’s ‘Real Beauty’

2) How has the Axe/Lynx brand changed its marketing to present a different representation of masculinity?

As Lynx/Axe found when it undertook a large-scale research project into modern male identity, men are craving a more diverse definition of what it means to be a ‘successful’ man in 2016, and to relieve the unrelenting pressure on them to conform to suffocating, old paradigms. This insight led to the step-change ‘Find Your Magic’ campaign from the former bad-boy brand.

3) How does campaigner David Brockway, quoted in the article, suggest advertisers "totally reinvent gender constructs"?

 Brockway advocates that advertisers “totally reinvent gender constructs” and dare to paint a world where boys like pink, don’t like going out and getting dirty, or aren’t career ambitious, for example.

4) How have changes in family and society altered how brands are targeting their products?

there is a slow but growing shift towards targeting consumers on more than the usual ‘ABC1 male’ demographics. Quite a few brands still segment like this, but others are seeking “a true understanding of their target consumer; who they really are, their beliefs, their attitudes, where they are now, where they want to be in future. “These brands are not just governed by the jobs men do or their age”.

5) Why does Fernando Desouches, Axe/Lynx global brand development director, say you've got to "set the platform" before you explode the myth of masculinity?

“This is just the beginning. The slap in the face to say ‘this is masculinity’. All these guys [in the ad] are attractive. Now we have our platform and our point of view, we can break the man-bullshit and show it doesn’t matter who you want to be, just express yourself and we will support that.

“What being a man means, and what ‘success’ means, is changing and this change is for the good. The message hasn’t exploded yet but we will make it explode. We will democratise it.”

Gender, identity and advertising: blog task

1) What examples does Gauntlett provide of the "decline of tradition"?

The traditional view of a woman as a housewife or low-status worker has been kick-boxed out of the picture by the feisty, successful 'girl power' icons. Meanwhile the masculine ideals of absolute toughness, stubborn self-reliance and emotional silence have been shaken by a new emphasis on men's emotions, need for advice, and the problems of masculinity.

2) How does Gauntlett suggest the media influences the way we construct our own identities?

Television programmes, pop songs, adverts, movies and the internet all also provide numerous kinds of 'guidance' - not necessarily in the obvious form of advice-giving, but in the myriad suggestions of ways of living which they imply.

3) What does Gauntlett suggest regarding generational differences? Is it a good thing that the media seems to promote modern liberal values?

Television programmes, pop songs, adverts, movies and the internet all also provide numerous kinds of 'guidance' - not necessarily in the obvious form of advice-giving, but in the myriad suggestions of ways of living which they imply.

4) Why does Gauntlett suggest that masculinity is NOT in crisis?

Women and men are both subverting each other's stereotypes, with them taking opposite roles in today's society. Women can be represented as strong and powerful and men could be presented as emotional and insecure. This is a progressive movement that people want top see happen.

5) Does advertising still reinforce the "conventionally rugged, super-independent, extra-strong macho man" that Gauntlett discusses? Offer examples for both sides of the argument from the wider advertising industry.

I think that as long as the media is run by people that are older and have more dated and traditional views - the adverts we see will always be like this. We see adverts for Men's GQ which itself is a statement that men deserve their own magazine - promoting why they are the better sex - with things like watches and suits, which exerts a sense of false masculinity. On the other hand, some adverts like the #MeToo campaign with Gillette shows how men can be fluid with their identity as Gauntlett states. 

6) Gauntlett discusses the idea of 'girl power' and offers examples from music and film. Does advertising provide evidence to support the idea of 'girl power' or is the industry still reinforcing traditional representations of men and women?

By introducing more 'girl power' movements - the advertising sector shows that they still live within a traditional viewpoint where there is an issue to exert female power in the first place. This will change with time but overall will stay a big and pertinent issue. 

7) Do you agree with Gauntlett's argument under 'Popular feminism, women and men' where he suggests that younger generations are not threatened by traditional gender roles and are comfortable with social changes? Does advertising provide examples either reinforcing or challenging this idea that younger generations are more comfortable with changing gender roles?

As I said before, the industries are run by older, more traditional men. In the future there is no doubt that most of society will conform with these more progressive views and will be more comfortable with social changes but for now - we have to sit and wait for those type of people to come into power. Gauntlett states that Tolerance of sexual diversity is slowly growing in society".

8) What examples from advertising does Gauntlett provide for the changing nature of gender in society (from the section on Judith Butler's Gender trouble)?

Other ads (such as ones for Impulse deodorant and Kronenbourg lager) playfully teased heterosexual desires only to reveal that the lust object was more interested in their own sex, pointing audiences to the unpredictability of sexualities.

9) Why is advertising such a good example of the 'contradictory elements' that Gauntlett discusses with regards to the mass media? In other words, how does advertising continue to both reinforce and challenge gender stereotypes?

"Although we may occasionally find ourselves saying that 'the mass media suggests' a particular perspective or point of view, the truth is that not only is 'the mass media' wildly diverse, but that even quite specific parts of media culture put out a whole spectrum of messages which cannot be reconciled."

Here we see the constant construction of our understanding of sexuality. The people in power influence us to think that society needs changing and then the adverts come in to cater to them. This is hitting the "moving targets" as Gauntlett describes.

10) Finally, Gauntlett makes a clear case that things change and modern identities are increasingly fluid. What is your opinion on this debate - do you agree that the media reinforces the changing attitudes towards gender and sexuality in society?

The media prompts us to believe that we have control over what we think - to the 90% of us who are mostly passive viewers, it has a profound effect on how we much we trust the media to enforce or suppress new and emerging trends or movements that may be a danger to the societal views held by the advertiser.

It's up to the active viewers who decide that some representations of certain sexualities or genders are outdated or not. This is then translated through the media who can choose to cover it to certain parts of the world more where people are more concerned about their identity as a whole.

Blog tasks: Representation of women in advertising

1) How does Mistry suggest advertising has changed since the mid-1990s?

Advertising has increasingly employed images in which the gender and sexual orientation of the subject(s) are markedly (and purposefully) ambiguous.

2) What kinds of female stereotypes were found in advertising in the 1940s and 1950s?

Soon after 1945, women were made to feel guilty by warnings of the 'dangerous consequences to the home' that had begun to circulate. The creation of 'feminine mystique' encompasses the fulfillment of their own femininity. 

3) How did the increasing influence of clothes and make-up change representations of women in advertising?

Women were portrayed as 'decorative and empty objects'. The idea of a 'fair maiden' was created. This is when a female longs to have their self actualisation unlocked by a typically represented man. This is usually in the form of intellectual and sexual inferiority. 

4) Which theorist came up with the idea of the 'male gaze' and what does it refer to?

Laura Mulvey contends that scopophilia (the basic human sexual drive to look at other human beings) has been 'organised' by society's patriarchal definition of looking as a male activity, and being looked at as a female 'passivity'.

5) How did the representation of women change in the 1970s?

The idea of a 'New Woman' was being created. Van Zoonen says this included  'changing reality of women's social position and of the influence of the women's movement'

6) Why does van Zoonen suggest the 'new' representations of women in the 1970s and 1980s were only marginally different from the sexist representations of earlier years?

Some images lead us to believe that they incorporate feminist ideals, but are actually 'used in such a way as to empty them of their progressive meaning'.

7) What does Barthel suggest regarding advertising and male power?

'today's young women can successfully storm the bastions of male power... without threatening their male counterparts' providing we can reassure them that, underneath the suit, we are still 'all woman', that 'no serious gender defection has occurred'

8) What does Richard Dyer suggest about the 'femme fatale' representation of women in adverts such as Christian Dior make-up?

He says that such images are something of a misrepresentation of women's liberation: '[advertising] agencies trying to accommodate new [feminist] attitudes in their campaigns, often miss the point and equate "liberation" with a type of aggressive sexuality and a very unliberated coy sexiness'. 


Media Magazine: Beach Bodies v Real Women (MM54)

Now go to our Media Magazine archive and read the feature on Protein World's controversial 'Beach Bodies' marketing campaign in 2015. Read the feature and answer the questions below in the same blogpost as the questions above.

1) What was the Protein World 'Beach Bodies' campaign?

The advert – featured a tanned, blonde female in a full-frontal pose – it generated so much controversy that in July 2015 the UK’s Advertising Standards Authority waded in.

2) Why was it controversial?

It deliberately shamed women who had different body shapes into believing they needed to take a slimming supplement to feel confident wearing swimwear in summer.

3) What did the adverts suggest to audiences?

The idea of the 'male gaze' was not intended but the prospect of getting females to like the advert went really wrong - it promoted ideals that are outdated and are idealistic.

4) How did some audiences react?

Some people signed a petition to take all the adverts in the US down whereas others campaigned by filming themselves in their own bkinis next to the billboard.

5) What was the Dove Real Beauty campaign?

The campaign employed an FBI-trained sketch artist to draw women twice – first based on their own self-perception, and then based on that of a stranger.

6) How has social media changed the way audiences can interact with advertising campaigns? 

We have the opportunity to voice our opinion on certain matters more than we used to.

7) How can we apply van Zoonen's feminist theory and Stuart Hall's reception theory to these case studies?

We can apply van Zoonen's theory of 'the female being a spectacle' to this because we see how women a=can be presenetd as idealistic and perfect but it can also challenge dominant and stereotypical patriarchal images of women. 

We can use hegemonic, negotiated and counter hegemonic readings to show how the adverts that are supposed to empower women sometimes do the opposite.

8) Through studying the social and historical context of women in advertising, do you think representations of women in advertising have changed in the last 60 years?

Yes because they have gone from being pets to men to being at the forefront of the world. They have utilised their influence and their lack of privilege before to convey to people that they deserve better.